This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Digital Health Reviews (1724) Artificial Intelligence (2129) Chatbots and Conversational Agents (740) Machine Learning (2076)

Published on in Vol 22, No 8 (2020): August

Preprints (earlier versions) of this paper are available at https://preprints.jmir.org/preprint/17158, first published .
Conversational Agents in Health Care: Scoping Review and Conceptual Analysis

Conversational Agents in Health Care: Scoping Review and Conceptual Analysis

Conversational Agents in Health Care: Scoping Review and Conceptual Analysis

Authors of this article:

Lorainne Tudor Car1, 2 Author Orcid Image ;   Dhakshenya Ardhithy Dhinagaran1 Author Orcid Image ;   Bhone Myint Kyaw1 Author Orcid Image ;   Tobias Kowatsch3, 4, 5 Author Orcid Image ;   Shafiq Joty6 Author Orcid Image ;   Yin-Leng Theng7 Author Orcid Image ;   Rifat Atun8 Author Orcid Image
Article Authors Cited by (341) Tweetations (7) Metrics

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  234. Koscelny S, Sadralashrafi S, Neyens D. Generative AI responses are a dime a dozen; Making them count is the challenge – Evaluating information presentation styles in healthcare chatbots using hierarchical Bayesian regression models. Applied Ergonomics 2025;128:104515 View
  235. Brown J, Mumford S, Alexis D, Ross A, Higginbotham E. Gender Differences in Patient-Physician Communication in Ophthalmic Practice, Pre- and Post-COVID-19 Period. American Journal of Ophthalmology 2025;275:114 View
  236. Santamaría A, Antón-Maldonado C, Sánchez-Quiñones B, Ibarra Vega N, González P, Carrasco R. LOLATAO—An Artificial-Intelligence-Based Virtual Assistant for Clinical Follow-Up of Patients with Non-Valvular Atrial Fibrillation (AF) Undergoing Oral Anticoagulant Therapy (OAT): A Feasibility Study. Journal of Clinical Medicine 2025;14(9):3023 View
  237. Parra M, Favela J, Castro L. MyndFood: a conversational agent for enhancing the cooking and eating experience. Frontiers in Computer Science 2025;7 View
  238. Shade M, Yan C, Jones V, Boron J. Interactive AI Routines for Pain Symptoms and Loneliness in Older Adults. Pain Management Nursing 2025;26(5):530 View
  239. Huang H, Chuang H. A Pilot Study on AI-Powered Gamified Chatbot with OMO Strategy for Enhancing Parental Nutrition Knowledge. Digital 2025;5(2):13 View
  240. Peter S, Riemer K, West J. The benefits and dangers of anthropomorphic conversational agents. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2025;122(22) View
  241. Moravec V, Gavurova B, Hynek N, Rigelsky M. Human-machine in the vortex of digital synergy. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 2025;12(1) View
  242. Nouraei F, Rebello K, Fallah M, Murali P, Matuszak H, Jap V, Parker A, Paasche-Orlow M, Bickmore T. Virtual Agent-based Communication Skills Training to Facilitate Health Persuasion Among Peers. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction 2025;9(2):1 View
  243. Nelekar S, Abdulrahman A, Gupta M, Richards D. Effectiveness of embodied conversational agents for managing academic stress at an Indian University (ARU) during COVID‐19. British Journal of Educational Technology 2022;53(3):491 View
  244. Kaneho A, Zrira N, Ouazzani-Touhami K, Khan H, Nawaz S. Development of a bilingual healthcare chatbot for pregnant women: A comparative study of deep learning models with BiGRU optimization. Intelligence-Based Medicine 2025;12:100261 View
  245. Colakoglu S, Durmus M, Polat Z, Yildiz A, Sezgin E. User Engagement with A Multimodal Conversational Agent for Self-Care and Chronic Disease Management: A Retrospective Analysis. Journal of Medical Systems 2025;49(1) View
  246. Adams S, Acosta J, Rajpurkar P. How generative AI voice agents will transform medicine. npj Digital Medicine 2025;8(1) View
  247. Kreitmair K. The Fundamental Fallacy of “Empathic AI”. Hastings Center Report 2025;55(3):36 View
  248. Abbasian M, Azimi I, Rahmani A, Jain R. Conversational health agents: a personalized large language model-powered agent framework. JAMIA Open 2025;8(4) View
  249. Kashyap N, Sebastian A, Lynch C, Jansons P, Maddison R, Dingler T, Oldenburg B. Engagement With Conversational Agent–Enabled Interventions in Cardiometabolic Disease Self-Management: Systematic Review. JMIR mHealth and uHealth 2025;13:e67913 View
  250. Chen F, Pang Y, Wang L. From Stigma to Acceptance: Ethical Implications of Anthropomorphic Design in Healthcare Chatbots. Journal of Business Ethics 2025 View
  251. Jonsson M, Gustavsson C, Pettersson L, Gulliksen J, Johansson S. A collaborative approach to the evaluation of cognitive accessibility of a conversational agent for public healthcare. Interacting with Computers 2025 View
  252. Li K, Wu S, Zhang Y, Zhu B, Qi Z, Hou S, Wang W. The Usability and Experience of Artificial Intelligence‐Based Conversational Agents in Health Education for Cancer Patients: A Scoping Review. Journal of Clinical Nursing 2025 View
  253. Koscelny S, Rucker R, Reed M, Duchowski A, Neyens D. Visual Attention in Healthcare Chatbot Interactions: Quantifying Varying Communication Styles with the K-Coefficient. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting 2025;69(1):153 View
  254. Akbar N, Dembani R, Lenzitti B, Tegolo D. RAG-Driven Memory Architectures in Conversational LLMs—A Literature Review With Insights Into Emerging Agriculture Data Sharing. IEEE Access 2025;13:123855 View
  255. Sadralashrafi S, Neyens D, Lee Y. Users Willingness to Use Healthcare Chatbot and its Perceived Impact on Health Self-Management: A Survey Study. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting 2025;69(1):2041 View
  256. Yang F, Guo S, Mousas C. Exploring Familiarity and Knowledgeability in Conversational Virtual Agents. ACM Transactions on Applied Perception 2026;23(1):1 View
  257. Mutin J, Hafizin M, El-Jammal V, Morel C, Leca L, Bergeron M, Bussières J. Extraction de données d’articles scientifiques pharmaceutiques par intelligence artificielle : évaluation de la conformité des réponses de ChatGPT 4.0 avec l’extraction humaine. Le Pharmacien Clinicien 2025 View
  258. Jiang X, Yuan X, Zhao H, Peng J. The Effectiveness and Feasibility of Conversational Agents in Supporting Care for Patients With Cancer: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Medical Internet Research 2025;27:e76968 View
  259. Raisa A, Chen X, Bryan E, Bylund C, Alpert J, Lok B, Fisher C, Thomas L, Krieger J. Virtual Health Assistants in Preventive Cancer Care Communication: Systematic Review. JMIR Cancer 2025;11:e73616 View
  260. Ghenimi N, Govender R, Moodley K. The paradox of artificial intelligence (AI) and narrative-based medicine: challenges and potential for enhanced patient care. AI & SOCIETY 2025 View
  261. Witharamulage Nikhil Yeshmantha , Walisarage Anne Thushini Amasha Fernando , Kuruppuarachchige Kumashi Sakunika , Sanvitha Kasthuriarachchi , Mihiri Samaraweera . A Human Trial Study on Overcoming Linguistic and Stress-Related Barriers in Chronic Disease Management. Emerging Science Innovation 2025;5:40 View
  262. MacNeill A, MacNeill L, Luke A, Doucet S. Exploring health professionals' views on the depiction of conversational agents as health professionals: a qualitative descriptive study. Frontiers in Digital Health 2025;7 View
  263. Shankar R, Wang L, Hoe H, Liew M, Gollamudi S, Wong S. Role of artificial intelligence in virtual emergency care: a protocol for a systematic review. BMJ Open 2025;15(9):e103084 View
  264. Cieslowski B, Anderson M, Brown K, Guido-Sanz F, Hallmark B, Wells-Beede E, Konzelmann J, Belk W, Smeltzer S, Mallala S, Carter M, Mahdy Z, Doran J, Derner D, Polson J, Burtch K, Chesney T, Rickerby C, Landis A, Patel A. Extended Reality in Health Care Simulation. Nurse Educator 2025;50(6):E363 View
  265. Lim S, Yang Q, Meng J, Rains S. The role of communication in health-focused conversational AI: a review of systematic reviews examining conversational features, design characteristics, and interaction functions. Behaviour & Information Technology 2025:1 View
  266. Moore D, Tao S, Ricci-De Lucca E, Tadin C, Tadin D, Morgan B, Murnane E. Family In The Loop: Enabling Family Involvement and Person-Centered Dementia Care at Long-Term Care Facilities with Collaborative AI Tools. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction 2025;9(7):1 View
  267. Panayotova G. Artificial Intelligence in Nutrition and Dietetics: A Comprehensive Review of Current Research. Healthcare 2025;13(20):2579 View
  268. Zhang X, Zayed A, Rehn Hamrin J, Güneysu A, Kuoppamäki S. Exploring Body Image Awareness With a Large Language Model–Based Conversational Agent: Qualitative Study With Young Adults. Journal of Medical Internet Research 2025;27:e78829 View
  269. Borsari B, Meacham M, Saiyed A, Kanzaveli T, Tsvetovat M, Cheng J, Hargrave-Bouagnon A, Mirzadegan I, Omeragic F, Layton J, Satterfield J. Protocol for a randomized clinical trial to evaluate the effectiveness of a technology-assisted motivational interviewing (TAMI) chatbot on smoking cessation. Contemporary Clinical Trials 2025;159:108111 View
  270. Cena F, Grasso F. Exploring users' mental models of conversational agents: a systematic review. Behaviour & Information Technology 2025:1 View
  271. Govrin A. Beyond the black box: why algorithms cannot replace the unconscious or the psychodynamic therapist. Frontiers in Psychiatry 2025;16 View
  272. Qin J, Nan Y, Li Z, Meng J. Effectiveness of Communication Competence in AI Conversational Agents for Health: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Medical Internet Research 2025;27:e76296 View
  273. Cesar Abrantes P, Netto A, Kazuo Takahata A. Healthbots for conducting clinical screening and remote monitoring with patient mood assessment: A scoping review. International Journal of Medical Informatics 2026;207:106186 View
  274. Zvolensky M, Shepherd J, Redmond B, Jo D, Garey L, Thai J. Anxiety Sensitivity and Substance Use Behavior and Disorders. Current Addiction Reports 2025;12(1) View
  275. Amil S, Gagnon M, Bédard A, Da S, Zavala Mora D, Drapeau V, Desroches S. Interactive Conversational Agents to Improve Dietary Behaviors for Health Promotion: Mixed Systematic Review. Journal of Medical Internet Research 2025;27:e78220 View
  276. Zhang Q, Wong A, Hui V. Conversational agent-based interventions for lifestyle behavior modification in older adults: a systematic review. Systematic Reviews 2025 View

Books/Policy Documents

  1. Gamberini L, Pluchino P, Porto L, Zordan F, Monterosso A, Palanivel K, Fontanari A. HCI International 2021 - Posters. View
  2. Liu C, Zhang B, Peng G. Distributed, Ambient and Pervasive Interactions. View
  3. Davids J, Ashrafian H. Artificial Intelligence in Medicine. View
  4. Galitsky B. Artificial Intelligence for Healthcare Applications and Management. View
  5. Gupta J, Raychaudhuri N, Lee M. Machine Learning and Autonomous Systems. View
  6. Kowatsch T, Fleisch E. Connected Business. View
  7. Davids J, Ashrafian H. Artificial Intelligence in Medicine. View
  8. Datar S, Ferland L, Foo E, Kotlyar M, Holschuh B, Gini M, Michalowski M, Pakhomov S. AI for Disease Surveillance and Pandemic Intelligence. View
  9. Spagnolli A, Gamberini L, D’Agostini E, Cenzato G. Human-Computer Interaction – INTERACT 2021. View
  10. Gibbons M, Shaihk Y, Ayalasomayajula F. Healthcare Information Management Systems. View
  11. Amantea I, Sulis E, Boella G, De Marchi F, Mazzini L, Alloatti F, Bolioli A. Ambient Assisted Living. View
  12. Moreno J, Sánchez-Anguix V, Alberola J, Julián V, Botti V. Hybrid Artificial Intelligent Systems. View
  13. Demetriadis S, Dimitriadis Y. Augmented Intelligence and Intelligent Tutoring Systems. View
  14. Langer H, Merkel S. Design, Operation and Evaluation of Mobile Communications. View
  15. Stević I, Vukmirović D, Vujović V, Marinković V. Innovation in Medicine and Healthcare. View
  16. Nakata T, Chen S, Saiki S, Nakamura M. Human Interface and the Management of Information. View
  17. Lal M, Neduncheliyan S. Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1. View
  18. Basu B, Garala K, Prajapati B. Human‐Machine Interface. View
  19. Oh Y, Arias K, Auster-Gussman L, Graham S. Digital Human Modeling and Applications in Health, Safety, Ergonomics and Risk Management. View
  20. Magni D. Design and Development of Emerging Chatbot Technology. View
  21. Wang X, Li Q. Human Aspects of IT for the Aged Population. View
  22. Stipancic T, Koren L, Rosenberg D, Harwood T, Benic J. Social Computing and Social Media. View
  23. Gavros A, Demetriadis S, Tegos S. Generative Intelligence and Intelligent Tutoring Systems. View
  24. Moharana S, Washington G, Carrington P, Harrington C. Intelligent Systems and Applications. View
  25. Lal M, Neduncheliyan S. Machine Learning Algorithms. View
  26. Nawaz A, Ahmad A. ArtifiAI for Aging Rehabilitation and Intelligent Assisted Living. View
  27. Augello A, Chella A, Pipitone A. Reference Module in Social Sciences. View

Books/Policy Documents

  1. Saiz Manzanares M, Martínez Martín M, Escolar Llamazares M, Ortiz Huerta J, Santamaría Vázquez M, Mercado Val E, Marticorena Sánchez R, Arnáiz González Á, Díez Pastor J, Rodríguez Arribas S. Training and specialisation in early intervention: use of technological resources and artificial intelligence. View
  2. Saiz Manzanares M, Martínez Martín M, Escolar Llamazares M, Ortiz Huerta J, Santamaría Vázquez M, Mercado Val E, Marticorena Sánchez R, Arnáiz González Á, Díez Pastor J, Rodríguez Arribas S. Formación y especialización en atención temprana: uso de recursos tecnológicos y de inteligencia artificial. View

Conference Proceedings

  1. Ilango V, Uma V, Kotekani S, Raja M A. 2022 Second International Conference on Advances in Electrical, Computing, Communication and Sustainable Technologies (ICAECT). Self Risk Assessment Model Embedded with Conversational User interface for Selection of Health Insurance Product View
  2. Ranieri A, Ruggiero A. 2022 IEEE International Conference on Metrology for Extended Reality, Artificial Intelligence and Neural Engineering (MetroXRAINE). Complementary role of conversational agents in e-health services View
  3. Fgaier M, Zrubka Z. 2022 IEEE 22nd International Symposium on Computational Intelligence and Informatics and 8th IEEE International Conference on Recent Achievements in Mechatronics, Automation, Computer Science and Robotics (CINTI-MACRo). Cost-effectiveness of using chatbots in healthcare: a systematic review View
  4. Xu H. 2022 Second International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Smart Energy (ICAIS). Intelligent Input and Analysis System of Pre-Qin Literature Based on Intelligent Text Extraction and Analysis Algorithm View
  5. Montagna S, Mariani S, Pengo M. 2023 IEEE 36th International Symposium on Computer-Based Medical Systems (CBMS). A Chatbot-based Recommendation Framework for Hypertensive Patients View
  6. Lupetti M, Hagens E, Van Der Maden W, Steegers-Theunissen R, Rousian M. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Conversational User Interfaces. Trustworthy Embodied Conversational Agents for Healthcare View
  7. Montagna S, Ferretti S, Klopfenstein L, Florio A, Pengo M. Proceedings of the 2023 ACM Conference on Information Technology for Social Good. Data Decentralisation of LLM-Based Chatbot Systems in Chronic Disease Self-Management View
  8. Kostis I, Sarafis D, Karamitsios K, Tsolaki M, Tsolaki A. 2023 IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC). An E-Commerce Conversational Virtual Assistant in Service of Mild Cognitive Impairment Patients View
  9. Harmsen W, Van Waterschoot J, Hendrickx I, Theune M. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Conversational User Interfaces. Eliciting User Self-disclosure using Reciprocity in Human-Voicebot Conversations View
  10. Barros F, Teixeira A, Silva S. International Cconference on Multimodal Interaction. Developing a Generic Focus Modality for Multimodal Interactive Environments View
  11. Hu Y, Lim H, Johnson H, O'Shaughnessy J, Kakonge L, Turkstra L, Duff M, Toma C, Mutlu B. The 25th International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility. Investigating Day-to-day Experiences with Conversational Agents by Users with Traumatic Brain Injury View
  12. Parra M, Castro L, Favela J. Adjunct Proceedings of the 2023 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing & the 2023 ACM International Symposium on Wearable Computing. Enhancing Well-being Through Food: A Conversational Agent for Mindful Eating and Cooking View
  13. Phutane M, Jung C, Chen N, Azenkot S. The 25th International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility. Speaking with My Screen Reader: Using Audio Fictions to Explore Conversational Access to Interfaces View
  14. Steenstra I, Murali P, Perkins R, Joseph N, Paasche-Orlow M, Bickmore T. Proceedings of the 23rd ACM International Conference on Intelligent Virtual Agents. Changing Parent Attitudes Towards HPV Vaccination by Including Adolescents in Multiparty Counseling using Virtual Agents View
  15. Peltola J, Kaipainen K, Keinonen K, Kiuru N, Turunen M. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Conversational User Interfaces. Developing A Conversational Interface for an ACT-based Online Program: Understanding Adolescents’ Expectations of Conversational Style View
  16. Biswas M, Islam A, Shah Z, Zaghouani W, Belhaouari S. 2023 Tenth International Conference on Social Networks Analysis, Management and Security (SNAMS). Can ChatGPT be Your Personal Medical Assistant? View
  17. May R, Denecke K. Proceedings of the 18th International Working Conference on Variability Modelling of Software-Intensive Systems. Conversational Agents in Healthcare: A Variability Perspective View
  18. Goh M, Jeong H, Yoo J, Han O. 2023 IEEE International Conference on Agents (ICA). Self-Disclosure in Digital Healthcare: Enhancing User Engagement View
  19. Singh A, Joshi S, Domb M. 2023 2nd International Conference on Automation, Computing and Renewable Systems (ICACRS). Embedded Conversational AI, Chatbots, and NLP to Improve Healthcare Administration and Practices View
  20. Jin T, Wang Y, Zhang W. Proceedings of the Eleventh International Symposium of Chinese CHI. Exploring Older People's Preferences in the Design Features of Virtual Agents: A Comprehensive Analysis View
  21. Dai C, Ke F, Zhang N, Barrett A, West L, Bhowmik S, Southerland S, Yuan X. Extended Abstracts of the CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. Designing Conversational Agents to Support Student Teacher Learning in Virtual Reality Simulation: A Case Study View
  22. Steenstra I, Murali P, Perkins R, Joseph N, Paasche-Orlow M, Bickmore T. Extended Abstracts of the CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. Engaging and Entertaining Adolescents in Health Education Using LLM-Generated Fantasy Narrative Games and Virtual Agents View
  23. Desai S, Dubiel M, Leiva L. ACM Conversational User Interfaces 2024. Examining Humanness as a Metaphor to Design Voice User Interfaces View
  24. Shih M, Hsu M, Lee S. The 37th Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology. Empathy-GPT: Leveraging Large Language Models to Enhance Emotional Empathy and User Engagement in Embodied Conversational Agents View
  25. Fallah M, Nouraei F, Yun H, Bickmore T. Proceedings of the ACM International Conference on Intelligent Virtual Agents. Investigating User Perceptions of Collaborative Agenda Setting in Virtual Health Counseling Session View
  26. Carchiolo V, Malgeri M. Global Congress on Emerging Technologies (GCET-2024). Quantitative Review of Conversational Agents in E-Health Using NLP and AI View
  27. Lee J, Jung K, Newman E, Chow E, Chen Y. Proceedings of the 2025 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. Understanding Adolescents' Perceptions of Benefits and Risks in Health AI Technologies through Design Fiction View
  28. Huang Y, Zhou Q, Piper A. Proceedings of the 2025 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. Designing Conversational AI for Aging: A Systematic Review of Older Adults' Perceptions and Needs View
  29. Degachi C, Dhar U, Niforatos E, Kortuem G. Proceedings of the Extended Abstracts of the CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. Towards a Domain Expert Evaluation Framework for Conversational Search in Healthcare View
  30. De Silva S, CHANG M. 2025 13th International Conference on Information and Education Technology (ICIET). ChatbotLLM - Training Educational Chatbots on the Materials Uploaded by Teachers View
  31. Namvarpour M, Razi A. Proceedings of the 7th ACM Conference on Conversational User Interfaces. The Art of Talking Machines: A Comprehensive Literature Review of Conversational User Interfaces View
  32. Ahire S, Guyre M, Rey B, Lee M, Candello H. Proceedings of the 7th ACM Conference on Conversational User Interfaces. Conversational Health Interfaces in the Era of LLMs: Designing for Engagement, Privacy, and Wellbeing View
  33. Hidayat M, Ahmad I, Assidiqi M, Khanzada T, Meccawy M. 2025 International Conference on Innovation in Artificial Intelligence and Internet of Things (AIIT). Knowledge Discovery and Scientometric Analysis of Conversational Artificial Intelligence (CAI) for Mental Health View
  34. Fallah M, Nouraei F, Timothy B. Proceedings of the 25th ACM International Conference on Intelligent Virtual Agents. Using Virtual Agents and LLMs to Generate Tailored Health Education Pamphlets View
  35. Chamma D, Ahmadpour N, Ishtiaque Ahmed S, Jahan Mim N, Zhang W, di Bona K, Sachathep T, Horst H, Imad Harb J. Proceedings of the 37th Australian Conference on Human-Computer Interaction. Epistemic Injustice in and through AI View
  36. di Bona K, Ijaz K, Ahmadpour N. Proceedings of the 37th Australian Conference on Human-Computer Interaction. "AI that’s so good it almost seems human:" Risk and Hype Cycles of AI and Chatbots in Mobile Mental Health Apps View