This study was performed based on the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines (Checklist 1) and was prospectively registered with PROSPERO (ID CRD42024585100).

Before screening the original studies, we established comprehensive eligibility criteria (Table 1).

PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, and the Cochrane Library were searched up to August 21, 2024. Both subject terms and free terms were used to design search terms. No restrictions regarding region or period were imposed. Multimedia Appendix 1 provides the detailed search strategy.

Articles retrieved from the databases were imported into EndNote (Clarivate Analytics). First, duplicates were removed. By reading the titles and abstracts, potentially eligible original studies were chosen. The full texts of these studies were then downloaded and read to determine eligible articles. Subsequently, a standardized spreadsheet was developed to extract data (eg, study title, first author, publication year, and study type) from the included articles. Two investigators independently screened the studies, extracted the data, and then cross-checked the results. Any disagreements were resolved through consultation with a third investigator.

The risk of bias (ROB) in the included studies was appraised using the Prediction Model Risk of Bias Assessment Tool (PROBAST). This tool encompasses 4 domains: participant, predictor variable, outcome, and statistical analysis. Questions in each domain could be answered with 3 responses: yes or probably yes, no or probably no, and no information. A domain was deemed to have high ROB if any question was answered with no or probably no. A domain was deemed to have low ROB if all questions were answered with yes or probably yes. The overall ROB was low if all domains were considered low ROB. The overall ROB was high if at least one domain was considered to have a high ROB. Two investigators independently appraised the ROB using the PROBAST, and their results were cross-checked. Disagreements, if any, were resolved by a third investigator.

For evaluating the overall accuracy, a meta-analysis of the c-indices of ML models was performed. In certain original studies, the 95% CI and SEs for the c-index were missing. We referred to the study by Debray et al [6] to estimate the SEs. Heterogeneity across studies was assessed using the I² statistic. A random-effects model was used if I² was greater than 50%, whereas a fixed effects model was adopted if I² was less than 50%. Additionally, the sensitivity and specificity, derived from the diagnostic quadrangle table, were pooled through bivariate mixed effects models. However, such a table was not available in many of the original studies. In this case, the number of cases with sensitivity, specificity, and precision was combined to compute the estimates. Sensitivity and specificity were extracted based on the optimal Youden index. This meta-analysis was performed in Stata (version 15.0; StataCorp LLC).

In total, 1215 articles were retrieved from the databases. Following the removal of 144 (11.85%) duplicates, 1071 (88.15%) articles were left. In total, 1041(85.68%) articles were excluded due to unrelated topics, including meta-analyses, reviews, guidelines, animal experiments, case reports, letters, and registration protocols. The full texts of the remaining 30 (2.47%) articles were then downloaded and read. We further excluded 4 (0.33%) conference abstracts that had not undergone peer review, 1 (0.08%) study that analyzed only risk factors without developing a complete ML model, 2 (0.16%) studies without an accuracy assessment of model outcomes, and 2 (0.16%) studies published based on the same dataset of another 2 studies. Finally, 21 (1.73%) articles were included [7-27] (Figure 1).

The included studies were published between 2014 and 2024, involving a total of 7011 patients with LC. Among these studies, 12 studies included 1412 cases of EVB [8,10-15,19-22,25], and 9 studies included 733 cases of EGVB [7-9,11,12,16,17,26,27]. These studies were conducted in 4 countries: 18 studies in China [7-20,23,25-27], 1 study in Egypt [21], 1 study in Iran [22], and 1 study in South Korea [24]. Among the included studies, 14 were case-control studies [7,12-16,18-20,22,24-27], 6 were cohort studies [8-11,21,23], and 1 was a cross-sectional study [15]. There were 16 single-center studies [7-9,12-17,19-23,25,27] and 5 multicenter studies [10,11,18,24,26]. Nine articles [7-9,11,12,16,17,26,27] centered on EGVB, and 12 articles focused on EVB [10,13-15,18-25]. Fourteen studies clearly outlined the method used to generate the validation set. Only 3 studies used external validation [10,18,19]. Two studies used time-based split [8,25], while the remaining studies conducted internal validation with random sampling. The models involved were mainly logistic regression models, while only a few studies constructed other types of models. Fifteen models were constructed based on clinical features [7-9,11,15-25]. Three models were based on radiomics [13,26,27]. Four models were based on radiomics and clinical features [12,14,26,27], and 1 model was based on endoscopic features in 1 study [10]. The detailed results are presented in Table 2.

The ROB in the included models was assessed. Fourteen models were from case-control studies, introducing a high ROB in participant selection. Fifteen models were built based on clinical features, resulting in a higher ROB in the predictive factors. Three models were based on radiomics, and thus, it was challenging to assess ROB. In terms of results, the included studies clearly outlined diagnostic criteria for EVB and EGVB, and no evidence of high ROB was noted in these diagnostic standards.

Of the models included, the number of cases was small in 9 training sets, resulting in a higher ROB. For 7 models, the number of cases in the validation set could not be estimated, leading to an unclear ROB. Regarding the handling of missing values, missing values were deleted in 6 models, leading to a high ROB. Only one study applied univariate analysis to select variables for the models, and 7 studies did not provide details on their variable selection methods. Among the included models, only one model was cross-validated, and thus, a high ROB was identified in the study. The full assessment results are available in Figure 2.

The risk of EVB and EGVB in patients with LC is high. Our study demonstrates that ML may be a feasible method for the early prediction of the risk of EVB and EGVB. In the validation set, the c-index, sensitivity, and specificity for ML models in the prediction of EVB were 0.85 (95% CI 0.77‐0.92), 0.93 (95% CI 0.87‐0.96), and 0.66 (95% CI 0.46‐0.82), respectively. Moreover, in the validation set, the c-index, sensitivity, and specificity for ML models in the prediction of EGVB were 0.89 (95% CI 0.85‐0.94), 0.77 (95% CI 0.66‐0.85), and 0.81 (95% CI 0.67‐0.90), respectively. Notably, 2 studies by Yang and Xu reported a sensitivity of 1.00 (100%) in the training set, but their specificity did not reach 1.00. Therefore, no perfect separation was observed. Furthermore, we also found that in the validation set, both studies reported sensitivities greater than 0.9 in the validation set, indicating no excessive overfitting. Therefore, this result indicates that the c-index and sensitivity of ML models are relatively high.

In patients with LC, EVB and EGVB represent a noticeable challenge that must be addressed in clinical research. Previous studies have established prediction models for EVB and EGVB. For instance, Malik et al [28] explored the use of ML for EVB or grading in patients with LC. Their results indicate that ML is highly promising for predicting esophageal varices in patients with LC and may reduce the necessity for minor surgeries. Nevertheless, their study points out that there is considerable heterogeneity and methodological limitations in their included studies, resulting in a high or unclear ROB. In the future, large-scale prospective trials are needed, and the evaluation standards for ML should be standardized to improve the practicality of these models in clinical settings.

Radiomics has recently attracted increasing attention in research on LC. In the study by Xue et al [29], transfer learning (TL) radiomics using multimodal ultrasound imaging was used for classifying the stage of liver fibrosis (LF). Their results revealed that in both the gray scale modality (GM) and elastogram modality (EM), TL exhibits superior diagnostic performance to non-TL approaches, with significantly higher areas under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUCs; all P<.01). Single-modal GM and EM both outperform liver stiffness measurement (LSM) and serum indices for staging LF (all P<.001). The prediction performance of multimodal GM+EM is higher than GM+LSM, GM and EM alone, LSM, and biomarkers (all P<.05). The AUC of multimodal GM+EM for staging LF is 0.950 for S4, 0.932 for S3 or more, and 0.930 for S2 or more. Yan et al [30] used multiphase magnetic resonance imaging–based radiomics to forecast the histological grading of HCC. According to their results, 33.8% of the cases were high-grade HCCs. The levels of α-fetoprotein (odds ratio 1.89) and tumor size (>5 cm; odds ratio 2.33) are strongly associated with HCC grade. The performance of the combined model is high in predicting the grade of HCC in the test dataset (AUC=0.801), with favorable calibration and clinical utility. Park et al [31] reviewed the applications of radiomics and deep learning (DL) in liver diseases. According to their results, radiomics and DL are promising techniques for imaging-based assessment of liver diseases. Recent studies have reported the potential uses of radiomics and DL in staging LF, detecting portal hypertension, describing focal liver lesions, and predicting malignant liver tumors. Consequently, radiomics has been receiving growing attention in the clinical diagnosis and treatment of LC.

In our study, the included variables primarily consisted of interpretable clinical features and radiomic features. The accuracy of radiomics-based models for predicting EVB and EGVB in patients with LC is relatively favorable. In the included studies, 5 models were constructed based on radiomics features [12-14,26,27], among which 1 model was based on radiomics features [13] and 4 models were based on radiomics and clinical features [12,14,26,27]. The 5 studies describe the detection of bleeding in LC based on computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging scans. Luo et al [12] developed a model based on 5 CT features from the liver and 3 CT features from the spleen. Its AUCs were 0.817 and 0.741 in the training and validation cohorts, respectively. Moreover, the clinical-radiomics model also exhibits notably predictive performance, with an AUC of 0.925 in the training cohort and 0.912 in the validation cohort. In the study by Meng et al [13], the Rad-score Liver-Spleen, based on 10 features, demonstrated strong discriminative performance. Its c-index is 0.853 (95% CI 0.776‐0.904) in the training cohort and 0.822 (95% CI 0.749‐0.875) in the validation cohort. According to Liu et al [14], the AUCs of their model are 0.89 (95% CI 0.84‐0.94) and 0.78 (95% CI 0.68‐0.87) in the training and validation datasets, respectively. These studies demonstrate that radiomics-based ML models have high predictive accuracy.

Although only a few studies on radiomic features were included in this study, their findings reveal that radiomics is essential in the diagnosis and treatment of LC. Given the small number of studies, their effect sizes were not pooled. However, the c-index of radiomics-based models was examined in the training and validation sets for both EVB and EGVB. For EVB, the c-index values were 0.85 (95% CI 0.77‐0.93) and 0.82 (95% CI 0.69‐0.96) for radiomics-based models in the training and validation sets, respectively. For EGVB, the c-index values were 0.90 (95% CI 0.84‐0.97) and 0.85 (95% CI 0.75‐0.96) for models based on radiomics and clinical features in the training and validation sets, respectively. The data indicate that radiomics appears to have a favorable performance for early prediction of EVB and EGVB. Therefore, future studies should focus on applying radiomics for the early differentiation of EVB and EGVB. However, due to the limited number of studies on radiomics, the results should be interpreted with caution. The detection performance of models constructed with traditional clinical features appears to be similar to that of models based on radiomics features. However, due to the limited number of studies on radiomics, more radiomics methods need to be explored to assess the risk of EVB and EGVB in patients with LC. Therefore, more studies need to be included in future research.

Furthermore, there was only one study based on endoscopic features. Endoscopy is broadly used in the management of EGV in patients with LC. The European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy Guideline [32] offers a comprehensive overview of the role of endoscopy in the diagnosis and treatment of variceal bleeding. However, given the limited number of studies based on endoscopic images, it is impossible to assess their performance. Overall, this study demonstrates that ML has high predictive accuracy. Nonetheless, a high ROB is observed. Moreover, it is difficult to assess the ROB of models based on endoscopic features. Therefore, we believe that ML is a feasible approach to predicting EVB and EGVB in patients with LC, but it comes with a high ROB.

We conducted subgroup analyses by modeling variables, including those based on clinical characteristics and those based on imaging, to further elucidate the sources of heterogeneity. However, subgroup analyses revealed substantial heterogeneity within the subgroups. Due to the limited number of included articles, we were unable to conduct subgroup analysis by additional variables. Furthermore, subgroup analysis remains a significant challenge for meta-analyses on ML models. Given the limited number of included articles, the interpretation of differences in results across different types of ML is limited. Heterogeneity between different model types is a concern in meta-analyses of ML models. Even within the same model, differences in training rules can contribute to heterogeneity. Furthermore, the number of cases remains a potential influencing factor. Overall, this study aimed to quantitatively summarize ML models for the early prediction of esophageal or gastric variceal bleeding in LC, better demonstrating the application value of ML. However, high heterogeneity was observed. Although we attempted to address the heterogeneity from multiple perspectives, it was difficult to further quantify the impact of these differences on the results due to population differences, varying methods of assessing bleeding, and a limited number of studies. Therefore, this may impose certain limitations on the interpretation of the results. Future research should further consider the impact of these factors on the results.

This study reveals a clear association between high AUC values and high ROB. Although several studies reported extremely high discrimination accuracy (AUC >0.90), PROBAST assessment showed that these studies generally had a high or unclear ROB. In the field of ML, near-perfect discrimination performance (AUC≈1.0) in small-sample, single-center studies is often a warning sign of methodological flaws rather than reflecting true performance. Specifically, among models with AUC ≥0.95, most were derived from single-center studies with a sample size of fewer than 200. These small sample studies with high AUC values mainly had the following problems in the PROBAST assessment: (1) the high ROB in participant selection was attributable to a retrospective design and case-control design; (2) the high ROB in analysis may be explained by the lack of appropriate validation strategy and treatment measures for overfitting; and (3) high ROB in predictors was due to insufficient transparency in variable selection and treatment. This suggests that limitations in methodology may lead to overestimation of model performance. Especially, extremely high AUC values observed in small-sample studies may reflect overfitting of the model to the training data rather than true clinical utility. This phenomenon may be due to multiple factors, such as occasional outperformance due to insufficient sample size, overfitting due to inadequate validation, and definitions of predictors and outcomes. The high ROB for the analysis domain in the PROBAST assessment (particularly the lack of measures to address overfitting) supports this explanation. Models with a c-index or AUC above 0.95 may be due to a small sample size and single-center design, with a potential risk of overfitting. Notably, high discrimination was also observed in larger, more rigorously designed multicenter trials [10].

These findings have important implications for clinical translation. First, for exceptionally high-performing models, the methodological rigor should be rigorously assessed. Second, future studies should include a sufficient sample size, perform cross-validation or external validation, and report calibration performance rather than focusing solely on discrimination. Finally, multicenter collaborations and prospective designs are crucial for generating generalizable predictive models. The discrimination performance of radiomics-based models in this study was high (AUC 0.91‐0.93). However, given the limited number of related studies (n=5) with small sample sizes and insufficient validation, these results should be interpreted with caution.

This study is the first to explore ML in predicting the risk of EVB and EGVB in patients with LC, offering a strong reference for the future development or updating of intelligent tools. Nonetheless, certain limitations must be considered. First, owing to the small number of radiomics studies, this study only summarized the c-index of radiomics-based models and did not discuss their sensitivities and specificities. Hence, the results should be interpreted with caution. Second, only some of the studies explicitly described their validation sets, while others did not perform any model validation. Third, the models were primarily developed using internal validation methods, with no independent external validation, which, to some extent, restricts the interpretation of the results. Fourth, while current ML techniques demonstrate excellent sensitivity in validation datasets, the false-positive rate remains high. Future research should not only improve sensitivity but also optimize specificity. Fifth, given significant methodological and clinical heterogeneity in the current evidence, our results merely summarize the current state of application of ML. It has the potential to serve as an early predictive tool for esophageal or gastric variceal bleeding in LC. Future research should further improve the methodology and model performance to establish definitive clinical benchmarks. Sixth, although we conducted subgroup analysis based on the generation method of the validation set, there are few studies on external validation. The results of external validation need to be interpreted carefully. Seventh, there was excessive heterogeneity in the meta-analysis of sensitivity and specificity. Hence, the pooled estimates should be considered descriptive averages rather than true predictive performance. The results need to be interpreted with caution. Seventh, 18 of the 21 included studies were from China, which may limit the generalizability of the results to other regions. Therefore, the generalizability of the results still needs to be validated by more data. Finally, although our results show high AUC and c-index values, a large number of the included studies have a high ROB (particularly in the analysis domain, eg, small sample size, a lack of external validation, and potential overfitting). Hence, our results should be interpreted with caution.

The performance of ML-based models for predicting EVB and EGVB in patients with LC is relatively favorable, particularly those based on radiomics. However, as the number of the included original studies is limited, it is impossible to explore the impact of validation set generation methods, model types, and other factors on outcomes. Therefore, future studies should include multicenter cohorts and integrate multi-omics databases to develop ML prediction tools with improved predictive performance and broader applicability, thereby developing specialized prevention strategies to reduce the risk of EVB and EGVB in patients with LC.