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The current opioid crisis in the United States impacts broad population groups, including pregnant women. Opioid use during pregnancy can affect the health and wellness of both mothers and their infants. Understanding women’s efforts to self-manage opioid use or misuse in pregnancy is needed to identify intervention points for improving maternal outcomes.
This study aims to identify the characteristics of women in an online health community (OHC) with opioid use or misuse during pregnancy and the self-management support needs of these mothers.
A total of 200 web posts by pregnant women with opioid use participating in an OHC were double coded. Concepts and their thematic connections were identified through an inductive process until theoretical saturation was reached. Statistical tests were performed to identify patterns.
The majority of pregnant women (150/200, 75.0%) in the OHC exhibited signs of misuse, and 62.5% (125/200) of the participants were either contemplating or pursuing dosage reduction. Self-managed withdrawal was more common (
OHCs provide vital self-management support for pregnant women with opioid use or misuse. Women pursuing self-managed dosage reduction are prone to misinformation and repeated relapses, which can result in extreme measures to avoid testing positive for drug use at labor. The study findings provide evidence for public policy considerations, including universal screening of substance use for pregnant women, emphasis on treatment rather than legal punishment, and further expansion of the Drug Addiction Treatment Act waiver training program. The improvement of web-based platforms that can organize geo-relevant information, dispense clinically validated withdrawal schedules, and offer structured peer support is envisioned for harm reduction among pregnant women who opt for self-management of opioid misuse.
I literally feel like this is the end. Like there is no way out. ...I don't want the heroin to harm the baby and I don't want withdrawals to harm the baby. And I don't have the money...
This is a quote from a pregnant woman in an online health community (OHC) who shared her dire circumstances. She is one of an estimated 21,000 pregnant women who reported misuse of opioids in the past month in the United States [
Opioid use during pregnancy is heavily stigmatized and may be legally prosecuted in many states [
Next, we will briefly review the related literature on the treatment of opioid misuse during pregnancy, barriers to care for pregnant women with opioid use, self-management support, and OHCs.
Research on the best clinical practice for managing opioid use disorder (OUD) in pregnancy has significantly advanced in the past two decades [
Survey studies and interview-based qualitative analyses have provided a contextual understanding of the barriers to care, including prenatal care and substance use treatment, encountered by pregnant women with opioid misuse. They are often of low socioeconomic status and experience significant obstacles such as lack of insurance coverage and transportation to access prenatal care, with their opioid use making it more difficult to resolve these barriers [
Health agencies in the United States and across the world have recently recognized the importance of facilitating patients’ self-efficacy in managing chronic conditions.
There is evidence that self-management support interventions alongside standard care can be effective for severe mental health problems [
Multiple studies point to the utility of web-based interventions in the negotiation of self-management work [
The majority (61%) of US adults use the internet to find health information [
We analyzed participant-generated content from an OHC (name omitted for the protection of user privacy) that has a long-standing history and active user participation. Compared with other social media platforms, the OHC (1) is anonymous, allowing for discussion of stigmatized and sensitive health topics; (2) does not have length limits, thereby providing space for relatively detailed accounts of personal experiences; (3) has a wide range of coverage in health condition topics, including pregnancy, substance use, and pain management, so that participants are not constrained to discuss only one aspect of their health given the complex nature of gestational opioid use; and (4) has a long history that allows us to study the activities of OHC participants at the beginning of the millennium when reports of overdoses from prescribed opioids began to rise sharply [
OHC content is considered public and exempt by institutional review boards as publicly available social media data per the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 45 Part 46.101 Paragraph (b) Categories of exempt human subject research (4) [
We queried the said OHC for posts made from 2000 to 2019 that contain a
The unit of analysis is an initiating post that refers to pregnancy and opioids and does not include its comments. We performed an inductive thematic analysis on the qualifying posts following the procedures outlined by Braun and Clarke [
Two researchers (a doctoral student with a public health background and a master’s student with a nursing background) iteratively annotated the same set of 200 randomly sampled posts divided into 3 coding runs. We first annotated 100 posts and recorded all appearing concepts, which were then grouped into key themes to form a codebook. For example, upon seeing many posts that described efforts of reducing the opioid dosage, we created the themes
Codebook.
Study aim, theme, and concept definition | Example | |||
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Opioid naïve: Temporary use of opioid prescriptions for acute pain lasting fewer than 3 months |
“I had stomach pains and went to the emergency room. The doctor gave me morphine.” [P3660] |
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Opioid misuse: Meeting one or more DSM-Va diagnostic criteria for OUDb [ Receiving treatment for OUD |
“I have been self-medicating myself a total of 18.75 mg daily for about a year and a half. When I stopped, I experienced withdrawal symptoms! Pretty intense ones too.” [P90] “I’m currently on methadone for an opiate addiction.” [P1600] |
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Unable to determine |
“I am 3 weeks pregnant and on Norco, Flexeril, Xanax. I have been taking them for 2 years.” [P1830] |
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Precontemplation: No mention of interest in reducing the opioid dosage |
“I’ve been taking Vicodin and Percocet and I’m 20 weeks pregnant.” [P5357] |
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Contemplation: Expressing interest in reducing the dosage |
“I am ready and would like to quit the suboxone cold turkey.” [P4191] |
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Action: Describing experience during withdrawal or relapse |
“I am on day 2 of detoxification. How long till I feel better?” [P4074] |
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No misuse |
“I am 38 weeks pregnant and my Ob prescribed me Percocet for kidney stones. I passed the stone today, so I won’t be needing the pain killers anymore.” [P6315] |
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Tapered withdrawal (self-managed): Describing preference for gradually reducing the dosage of opioids |
“I have been detoxing for 2 months and have gone down to 29 mgs.” [P1649] |
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Sudden discontinuation (self-managed): Using expressions that indicate full discontinuation of opioids |
“I have 2 weeks left till my delivery date I stopped taking the Norco today.” [P1339] |
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Undecided self-recovery: Not specifying a particular method but expressing interest in dosage reduction on one’s own |
“I know I can’t do this cold turkey and am unsure of my will power to taper.” [P6576] |
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Professional treatment: Receiving substance use treatment from professionals |
“I take the methadone daily at a clinic near where I live.” [P1600] |
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MATc (source unknown): Using MAT medications from unspecified sources |
“Is it safe to use Suboxone while being pregnant?” [P6066] |
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Not applicable: Women who did not have opioid misuse or not pursuing recovery |
“I’m 27 weeks pregnant and have peed blood, and my sides where my kidneys are have been hurting really bad. I’m trying not to take the Tylenol with codeine, but I might have to if it keeps getting worse.” [P17] |
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First trimester: 0-13 weeks |
“I have just found out I am 6 weeks pregnant.” [P6434] |
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Second trimester: 14-27 weeks |
“I am currently 22 weeks pregnant with my second child.” [P3644] |
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Third trimester: 28+ weeks |
“I am 39 weeks pregnant.” [P5896] |
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Unspecified |
“I think I’m on the right path now, but I’m scared it will still be in my system when I have the baby.” [P460] |
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Potential adverse effects of gestational opioid use Neonatal withdrawal Open-ended inquiry |
“I was just wondering if my baby could possibly withdrawal from these?” [P6342] “Has anyone taken this and (was) baby ok?” [P217] |
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Self-managed withdrawal |
“Has anyone had any good stories with getting lowered slowly off it?” [P12765] |
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Pain management safe for pregnancy |
“I am prescribed Percocet for pain. Is it bad for baby, is there a best alternative?” [P1283] |
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Legal procedures |
“I need to know if they can take my baby because of this prescription showing up?” [P5143] |
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Navigating offline support systems: Looking for recommendations of treatment facilities Interacting with providers Interacting with caretakers |
“If anyone knows of an OBGYN that takes [insurance name] and is familiar with my situation, or a pain management doc that deals with pregnancies and also takes my insurance...just SOMEWHERE to start.” [P141] “I’m not sure what to do anymore. I don’t want my doc to think I’m abusing them or selling then because I swear I’m not!” [P8] “I just don’t want to bring up my drug use to my mom because I know it’s going to hurt her. I don’t know what to do or what to say that doesn’t have my mom worry about my baby’s healthy.” [P3413] |
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Other pregnancy concerns |
“I am not sure if I have felt the baby move yet, I am 18 weeks today. Is that ok?” [P6689] |
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Appropriate: The tapering plan is consistent with clinical guidelines |
No instances were found. |
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Inappropriate: The tapering plan is too rapid |
“I took 3, 30 mg for the past few days and I took 2, 30 mg today. I am going to take 1, 30 mg tomorrow, 15 the next and half that the following.” [P6844] |
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Unclear: Not enough information to determine appropriateness |
“Can I ween myself off of Methadone slowly, very slowly?” [P3391] |
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Seeking emotional support |
“Some days I have a hard time staying positive. Please if anyone is available to talk with me, I would really appreciate it.” [P3899] |
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Negative sentiments: Fear Shame Anxiety Despair |
“I am terrified of losing him.” [P3545] “I am very ashamed.” [P90] “I am planning to cut down and then quit because I’m worried, even though doctors say they are ok.” [P369] “I am so ashamed, scared, and lonely! I feel hopeless!” [P4608] |
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Mixed sentiment: Cautious optimistic |
“I feel much more optimistic about beating my addiction for good after coming to this forum. It’s hard when you have no one to talk to or share experiences with.” [P2137] |
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Positive sentiment: Positive emotions, such as hope and love |
No instances were found. |
aDSM-V: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition.
bOUD: opioid use disorder.
cMAT: medication-assisted treatment.
Furthermore, women’s common beliefs were compared with the scientific literature and clinical guidelines to discern any divergence. An experienced clinical psychologist annotated whether misconception existed compared with clinical guidelines in the self-guided withdrawal plans described by participants [
Themes from inductive coding were grouped in the results to address the 2 study aims. First, the characteristics of OHC participants (study aim 1) are represented by themes coded under
The search query yielded 3559 posts between 2000 and 2019. Posts appeared in 201 subgroups related to substance misuse (2096/3559, 58.89%), pregnancy (680/3559, 19.11%), and others (783/3559, 22.00%), such as neurology and back pain. The mean number of drug names mentioned per post was 1.3 (SD 0.7). The mean character count per post was 1411.2 (SD 1313.7).
The majority (150/200, 75.0%) of women who took opioids during pregnancy in the OHC (
Gestationally, the women were primarily in their first or third trimesters, and notably, the percentage of women not pursuing recovery (ie, precontemplation stage) decreased (
Characteristics of women inquiring about opioid use in the online health communities (N=200).
Characteristic | Participants, n (%) | ||
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Opioid naïve | 22 (11.0) | |
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Opioid misuse | 150 (75.0) | |
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Unable to determine | 28 (14.0) | |
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Precontemplation | 51 (25.5) | |
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Contemplation | 31 (15.5) | |
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Action | 94 (47.0) | |
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No misuse | 24 (12.0) | |
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Tapered withdrawal | 40 (20.0) |
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Sudden discontinuation | 35 (17.5) |
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Undecided | 15 (7.5) |
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Professional treatment | 29 (14.5) | |
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Medication-assisted treatment (unknown sources) | 6 (3.0) | |
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Not applicable | 75 (37.5) | |
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First | 61 (30.5) | |
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Second | 49 (24.5) | |
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Third | 66 (33.0) | |
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Unspecified | 24 (12.0) |
Proportions of the recovery stages by trimester.
Following thematic analysis of the web posts, 6 primary themes of self-management support needs were identified, including information needs for understanding (1) the potential adverse effects of gestational opioid use, (2) self-led withdrawal, (3) the safety of continued opioid use for pain management during pregnancy, (4) legal procedures related to child protection, (5) navigating offline health care systems, and (6) needs for emotional support (
Self-management support needs expressed in the online health community postings (N=200).
Themes and concepts | Participants, n (%) | ||
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Potential adverse effects of gestational opioid use | 99 (49.5) | |
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Self-managed withdrawal | 70 (35.0) | |
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Pain management safety during pregnancy | 20 (10.0) | |
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Legal procedures | 18 (9.0) | |
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Navigating offline support systems | 9 (4.5) | |
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Seeking emotional support | 12 (6.0) | |
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Other pregnancy concerns | 5 (2.5) | |
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Unspecified | 4 (2.0) |
Standardized residuals of associations between self-management support needs and recovery stages.
The most common concern (99/200, 49.5%) of the study population was the potential adverse effects of opioids on the fetuses. In particular, the questions on drug safety have a high level of homogeneity and can be simply divided into 2 categories: general inquiry as in “was your baby okay?” [P3614] and specific inquiry on the potential of neonatal withdrawal as in “I am scared to death my baby will have withdrawals” [P16]. These concerns were primarily seen among those who did not consider treatment for opioid misuse (rstd=2.13) or did not have a misuse (rstd=4.00), whereas those in active pursuit of recovery were least concerned with the drug safety in their posts (rstd=−2.95;
Questions about how to reduce opioid dosage during pregnancy were the second most common (70/200, 35.0%), primarily among those contemplating (rstd=4.14) or undergoing (rstd=2.72) treatment of opioid misuse (
First, women contemplating dosage reduction used the OHC as a sounding board to plan their course of action in the absence of professional advice. They debated the risks and benefits of withdrawal during pregnancy and how to do so safely. They were concerned about the impact on the fetus if withdrawal symptoms occurred during their pregnancy:
I'm scared about the withdrawals of MS Contin, for which I'm fully prepared, but scared it will harm my child?
They also compared sudden discontinuation to tapered withdrawal:
I considered quitting cold turkey, but I have read that it is a bad idea. Would tapering be a good idea? What is a good taper method?
Although this shows some women were aware of the disadvantages of sudden discontinuation, tapered withdrawal (40/200, 20.0%) and sudden discontinuation (35/200, 17.5%) were equally popular among the study population (
Second, once committed to decreasing their opioid dosage, the women may describe a detailed tapering schedule in the OHC to solicit peer feedback:
Should I just do half of what I have been for a few days, then cut it in half again, do that for a couple days, then go for nothing?! I really don't know what to do, that's why I am asking for help.
Of all the women who indicated an interest in tapered withdrawal, only 23% (9/40) provided specific information on how they intended to do so, suggesting that most did not have a structured plan on how to taper. Furthermore,
Appropriateness of tapering schedule (N=40).
Appropriateness | Participants, n (%) |
Unclear | 31 (78) |
Inappropriate (too rapid) | 9 (22) |
Appropriate | 0 (0) |
Third, after initiating withdrawal, the women turned to the OHC for practical advice and emotional support when undergoing the hardship of withdrawal, sometimes stemming from the lack of a proper tapering schedule:
Just started detox on tramadol today. I feel like hell and my legs are killing me! I'm 26 hours into it. How much more do I need to endure?
As a result of significant withdrawal symptoms, they were prone to setbacks and relapses:
Unfortunately, I relapsed and slowly started using until now (37 weeks). I have stopped a couple of times but have had issues because of withdrawal fears.
To combat the demoralizing impact of relapses, some women looked to the OHC to hold them accountable:
I am just looking for some support, accountability and encouragement as I feel so alone, scared and terrible about my relapse and lying to my love.
These experiences highlight the absence of structure and support with self-managed withdrawal as compared with being in a clinical program where physician supervision and evidence-based therapies are provided to help patients manage their dosage reduction process more effectively.
Fourth, the repeated attempts and failures to decrease opioid use during pregnancy were not only physically taxing and emotionally draining but also meant that the women with clandestine opioid use would have no other perceived choice but to resort to sudden discontinuation when the date of delivery approached in hope of a negative drug test, despite the dangers of doing so abruptly. Women in this position asked:
How long will it take for the test to be negative if I stop today?
The commonness of this risky approach is evident in the increasing percentage (
Proportions of the recovery methods by trimester.
Women using opioids for chronic pain management before becoming pregnant faced the dilemma of leaving their severe pain untreated or risking side effects to their fetus. They had difficulty transitioning to gestational opioid use:
I have been in pain management for 3 years due to a dislocated hip. Apparently neither my OB nor primary care doctor have ever dealt with “my situation” before.
In looking for safe pain medications to take during pregnancy, they (20/200, 10.0%) viewed peers’ experience as empirical evidence and second opinions to professional advice:
I have 4 discs missing in my spine. I am now 4 months pregnant and my doctor has taken me off everything!!! Does anyone know what is safe for the baby?
As they continue to take opioids during pregnancy, concerns related to pain management are mostly associated (rstd=3.98) with those in the precontemplation stage (
Concerns related to Child Protective Services (CPSs) procedures were present in 9.0% (18/200) of the posts. These concerns were more common among women in the recovery stage of action (rstd=1.79) than in other stages (
I am scared to death of having to deal with child protection service especially since none in my family knows about any of this and the fear of my child being taken away from me.
They inquired about the role of hospitals in reporting drug use instead of directly asking their providers:
Will child services still get involved? I have heard that doctors do these types of things and contact these types of people behind your back?
Notably, those who used unprescribed MAT medications to self-treat OUD (6/200, 3.0%) may still be held accountable for illegal possession and opioid use during pregnancy.
A few women (9/200, 4.5%) also requested strategies for navigating their offline support systems, including recommendations for treatment facilities (4/200, 2.0%), advice for interacting with health care providers (4/200, 2.0%), and disclosing opioid use with their family members (1/200, 0.5%). These concerns were not particularly associated with one recovery stage. Accessing specialized prenatal care for women with opioid use or finding substance treatment programs that accept pregnant women presented a challenge. Locating a specialty program proved to be difficult even with an obstetrician’s referral:
My obstetrician had made me an appointment with a therapist, who tells me she doesn't even see pregnant women! I got some numbers for the methadone clinic and other places but yet again no one will help a pregnant woman.
This post was made after 2010, which is a decade after the passing of the Drug Addiction Treatment Act (DATA) of 2000, which allows trained physicians including obstetricians to treat opioid dependency with MAT medications. Women also consulted the OHC for strategies on how to best interact with their providers and caretakers to explain personal circumstances involving opioid usage and building rapport (examples are given in
Besides the needs for informational support, a few women (12/200, 6.0%) explicitly requested emotional support:
Please send me some words of encouragement.
In contrast, a high number of posts (117/200, 58.5%) described negative emotions, including fear, shame, anxiety, and despair (
Sentiment (N=200).
Sentiment | Participants, n (%) |
Negative | 117 (58.5) |
Not specified | 82 (41.0) |
Mixed | 1 (0.5) |
Positive | 0 (0.0) |
The majority of pregnant women in the OHC exhibited signs of opioid misuse, with approximately two-thirds of them pursuing recovery. Self-managed withdrawal of opioid use was more common than professional treatment. The following 6 identified themes highlighted women’s self-management support needs: (1) providing clarity on the impact of opioid drugs on pregnancy; (2) providing clinically validated information on how to scientifically reduce opioid dosage; (3) providing guidelines on safe pain management practice during pregnancy; (4) providing information on local CPSs procedures, including the hospital’s role in reporting; (5) providing strategies for interacting with and obtaining support from offline support systems; and (6) providing emotional support for those experiencing negative emotions.
The study population relied heavily on the OHC to provide guidance in the absence of professional care and in-person support, which differentiates them from other patient groups that usually use online support groups as a supplement to traditional health care services or in-person support groups [
Experiencing negative emotions is commonplace for the study population, but explicitly requesting emotional support is not. Furthermore, although positive emotions are shown to be a facilitator of self-efficacy, which is a key construct in the social cognitive theory for effecting health behavior change [
It is worth noting that self-management support interventions are typically developed by health care professionals to complement standard care. For example, self-management support for mental health typically focuses on patient education, medication adherence, relapse prevention, and coping strategies [
Although DATA was passed in 2000, women in the OHC still reported difficulty in obtaining MAT from their obstetricians’ office years later. To facilitate the initiation of recovery for pregnant women with opioid misuse, it is imperative to increase the number of obstetricians who are waivered buprenorphine prescribers and to increase the number of opioid treatment programs that cater to pregnant women. As of January 2020, approximately 10% of US physicians have received the DATA waiver [
The popularity of self-management in the OHC highlights women’s needs for support in reducing their opioid dosage and their fear of seeking professional care. This indicates that legal penalization can be detrimental to the well-being of both the mother and child, as women avoid prenatal visits [
Although technology may not be able to directly change the medical and legal landscape, it can be used to tackle challenges faced by pregnant women with opioid misuse. Digital interventions have demonstrated small to modest effects in supporting people in recovery from SUDs [
Facilitation refers to providing tools and resources to make new behaviors easier to establish. OHCs can facilitate (1) geo-specific information dissemination and (2) clinically validated tapering schedules for those who opt for self-management. Specifically, given the regional variations in law enforcement and resources of specialized care, organizing information specific to geographic areas may facilitate online discussions relevant to participants’ local environments. For those opting for self-managed withdrawals, we envision an online calculator that can account for women’s historical opioid dosage and gestational stage and generate a personalized tapering schedule based on current guidelines (albeit while expressing strong encouragement to bring one’s opioid use to the attention of their health care professionals).
Furthermore, self-regulation refers to controlling oneself through self-monitoring, goal setting, feedback, and the enlistment of social support. Although undergoing withdrawal, women in the OHC often lack structured social support that can hold them accountable and support them in their efforts to stay on track. Peer-led 12-step groups have been shown to improve accountability and recovery prospects for participants [
The findings of this study should be interpreted with limitations. First, the reported self-recovery trends are representative of those seeking help in the OHC. The percentage of self-managed withdrawal in the general population may be lower than that reported in this study, as those opting for self-management may have a greater propensity for participating in the OHC discussions to seek help. Our findings, however, are meaningful in better understanding the OHC population that appears to require relevant, clinically validated information. Second, only 200 posts for the OHC were analyzed. Thematic analyses are commonly applied to sociobehavioral studies using semistructured interviews with an average of 30 participants (SD 18.7) [
OHCs provide vital self-management support for pregnant women with opioid use or misuse. Women pursuing self-managed dosage reduction are prone to misinformation and repeated relapses, which can result in extreme measures to avoid testing positive for drug use at labor. The study findings provide evidence for public policy considerations, including universal screening of substance use for pregnant women, emphasis on treatment rather than legal punishment, and further expansion of the DATA waiver training program. The improvement of online platforms that can organize geo-relevant information, dispense clinically validated withdrawal schedules, and offer structured peer support is envisioned for harm reduction among pregnant women who opt for self-management of opioid misuse.
Definitions related to opioid use and treatment.
List of 36 drug names related to opioid use.
Child Protective Service
Drug Addiction Treatment Act
medication-assisted treatment
neonatal abstinence syndrome
online health community
opioid use disorder
substance use disorder
This work was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under Grant NSF-1741306, Grant IIS-1650531, and Grant DIBBS-1443019. Any opinions and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this study are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
None declared.