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Fitness inspiration or
The aim of this study is to explore how young men and women engage in fitspiration content on Instagram and provide a gendered analysis of how and why they consume this content.
This study used a cross-sectional web-based survey (N=1213) of UK-based fitspiration users aged 18-24 years consisting of closed-ended questions to capture quantitative data.
The majority actively using Instagram for fitspiration (therefore eligible participants) were women (826/1175, 70.30%). Men were more likely to view content posted by athletes (χ21, N=1153=71.8;
Female fitspiration consumers engaged with content that reinforced the feminine
Social media is becoming embedded within our everyday lives, with 68% of people and 98% of those aged 16-24 years within the United Kingdom using web-based social networking platforms [
While fitspiration is widespread on multitudinous social media platforms, it is particularly common on Instagram [
Users of Instagram are exposed to multiple
The paradoxical findings on the relationship between fitspiration consumption and well-being reflect a small yet emerging body of research exploring the impact of fitspiration content on the lives and experiences of consumers. Despite this, research conducted on fitspiration to date focuses on the nature of the fitspiration content as opposed to the individuals that consume it [
Currently, the majority of research exploring fitspiration focuses specifically on women’s experiences [
Gendered analyses have also shown significant differences in the nature of the fitspiration images depicting men and women’s bodies, with women being more likely to be objectified and sexualized, and images with a greater focus on the participant’s buttocks [
The aim of this study is to explore how young (18-24 years) people engage with fitspiration content on Instagram and provide a gendered analysis of how and why they consume this content. This is in response to the aforementioned research that demonstrates the gendered nature of their consumption experiences in terms of the ideologies communicated through fitspiration, the composition of images, and the ways in which men and women interact with the content. While previous studies provide some light in terms of exploring how fitspiration consumption and the impact of fitspiration on individuals are gendered, because of the popularity and cultural relevance of this form of consumption, there is a great need for further research exploring the motivations for engagement, patterns of consumption, and perceived impact of fitspiration from a gendered perspective. This research will allow for greater exploration into how and why this experience is gendered, which can be used to help support digital literacy training and support for consumers of this content.
The research used a cross-sectional web-based survey consisting of closed-ended questions to capture quantitative data to meet the study’s aim of exploring how those aged 18-24 years in the United Kingdom engage with fitspiration on Instagram using a gendered perspective. The survey was informed by the existing literature (outlined above), specifically by a previous survey-based fitspiration research study [
Data were collected during a 1-week period in May 2019 using a web-based insight exchange platform (Cint database) to request a representative sample from appropriate users registered to a range of web-based survey panels. A minimum sample size of 1000 was requested, which was achieved and exceeded, a benefit of using the insight exchange platform. However, it is important to note that the number of participants contacted is unknown owing to the nature of the participant recruitment platform.
The eligibility criteria were that participants (n=1213) had to be aged 18-24 years (in line with previous research [
The following variables were measured (a copy of the questionnaire is available on request from the authors): demographic characteristics (age, BMI, gender, sexuality, and educational level), use (frequency of use and duration of use), and content and engagement (content engaged with while online, means of engaging with content, and reasons for engagement).
To allow for adequate description of the sample, a number of demographic characteristics were collected, including gender, age, sexual identity, and highest level of education completed. BMI was calculated using participants’ self-reported height and weight.
To determine how the sample used Instagram, participants indicated how often they checked the platform using a 9-point scale adapted from previous research [
To ascertain how the sample used fitspiration, participants indicated how often they viewed this content (as defined above) using scales adapted from previous literature [
Participants indicated the types of fitspiration they engaged with on the platform by selecting from a checkbox list informed by previous research [
In line with previous fitspiration research [
Participants’ reasons for engaging with fitspiration content were collected using a predefined checkbox list of 8 reasons developed using existing literature [
A small incentive was offered in terms of points that participants could accumulate to gain future cash rewards, rather than simply offering cash incentives to try to minimize any subsequent bias. This is designed to discourage
Data were analyzed using IBM SPSS for Windows (version 25), with charts produced using Microsoft Excel. Given the nonparametric nature of the data, basic descriptive statistics were used to describe the nature of the sample, and chi-square analyses were undertaken to explore the relationships between gender and Instagram use in terms of the variables outlined earlier.
Following the screening questions, the survey was completed by 1213 eligible participants with a median age of 21 years. Response rates to individual questions varied and are reported as such. Where there were missing data, responses were deleted. A full breakdown is provided in
Description of sample.
Characteristicsa | Values, n (%) | |
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Female | 826 (68.1) |
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Male | 342 (28.2) |
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Nonbinary or genderqueer | 7 (0.6) |
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Female straight | 647 (59.4) |
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Male straight | 263 (24.1) |
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Female bisexual or pansexual | 106 (9.7) |
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Male bisexual or pansexual | 23 (2.1) |
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Female gay | 21 (1.9) |
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Male gay | 15 (1.4) |
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Other | 6 (0.6) |
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Nonbinary and genderqueer, bisexual, and pansexual | 4 (0.4) |
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Nonbinary and genderqueer and gay | 2 (0.2) |
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Nonbinary and genderqueer and other | 1 (0.1) |
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Underweight | 621 (56.0) |
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Normal | 232 (20.9) |
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Overweight | 132 (12.0) |
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Obese | 113 (11.1) |
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Undergraduate degree or higher | 399 (33.7) |
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A or AS level | 350 (25.3) |
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GCSEb or O level | 207 (17.5) |
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Higher qualification below degree level | 181 (15.3) |
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Postgraduate degree | 113 (9.5) |
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Other | 47 (3.97) |
aResponses are ordered from most to least common.
bGCSE: General Certificate of Secondary Education.
With regard to the fitspiration content on Instagram, 49.38% (599/1213) viewed content at least once per day, 32.32% (392/1213) at least once per week, and 18.30% (222/1213) less often. A total of 56.86% (714/1213) reported checking the platform at least once every hour, while 88.13% (1069/1213) checked it at least once every few hours. On average, 67.39% (812/1205) of participants spent an hour or more per day on Instagram with 18.50% (223/1205) spending over 4 hours and 2.99% (36/1205) spending over 8 hours on the platform. A categorical gender comparison between men and women (there were insufficient data to test differences with those who identified as nonbinary or genderqueer for any variables) using a chi-square test of independence demonstrated that women were more likely to check Instagram more regularly than their male counterparts (χ21, N=1168=19.1;
The most common types of fitspiration viewed by all participants were content from celebrities or models (717/1196, 59.95%), weight loss or fitness journeys or body transformation stories (641/1196, 53.60%), and influencers (473/1196, 39.55%). Gender differences in terms of engaging with specific forms of content are outlined in
Gender and fitspiration content (n=1153).
Type of engagement | Total (n=1153), n (%) | Gender, n (%) | Φ coefficient | ||||||||||||
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Male | Female |
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<.001 | −0.179 | |||||||||||||
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Do engage | 620 (53.8) | 134 (39.9) | 486 (59.5) |
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Do not engage | 533 (46.2) | 202 (60.1) | 331 (40.5) |
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.09 | −0.050 | |||||||||||||
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Do engage | 393 (34.1) | 127 (37.8) | 266 (32.6) |
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Do not engage | 760 (65.9) | 209 (62.2) | 551 (67.4) |
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<.001 | −0.250 | |||||||||||||
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Do engage | 335 (29.1) | 157 (46.7) | 178 (21.8) |
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Do not engage | 818 (70.9) | 179 (53.3) | 639 (78.2) |
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<.001 | 0.169 | |||||||||||||
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Do engage | 255 (22.1) | 111 (33) | 144 (17.6) |
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Do not engage | 898 (77.9) | 225 (67) | 673 (82.4) |
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<.001 | −0.170 | |||||||||||||
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Do engage | 689 (59.8) | 157 (46.7) | 532 (65.1) |
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Do not engage | 464 (40.2) | 179 (53.3) | 285 (34.9) |
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<.001 | −0.152 | |||||||||||||
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Do engage | 401 (34.8) | 79 (23.5) | 322 (39.4) |
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Do not engage | 752 (65.2) | 257 (76.5) | 495 (60.6) |
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<.001 | −0.163 | |||||||||||||
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Do engage | 235 (20.4) | 34 (10.1) | 201 (24.6) |
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Do not engage | 918 (79.6) | 302 (89.9) | 616 (75.4) |
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.001 | −0.102 | |||||||||||||
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Do engage | 258 (22.4) | 53 (15.8) | 612 (74.9) |
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Do not engage | 895 (77.6) | 283 (84.2) | 205 (25.1) |
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.009 | −0.077 | |||||||||||||
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Do engage | 305 (26.5) | 71 (21.1) | 234 (28.6) |
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Do not engage | 848 (73.5) | 265 (78.9) | 583 (71.4) |
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<.001 | −0.141 | |||||||||||||
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Do engage | 460 (39.9) | 98 (29.2) | 362 (44.3) |
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Do not engage | 693 (60.1) | 238 (70.8) | 455 (55.7) |
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.17 | −0.041 | |||||||||||||
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Do engage | 210 (18.2) | 53 (15.8) | 157 (19.2) |
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Do not engage | 943 (81.8) | 283 (84.2) | 660 (80.8) |
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Gender and fitspiration content.
In terms of gender and engagement with fitspiration, a number of differences emerged, as highlighted in
Women were significantly more likely than men to engage in passive consumption behaviors such as follow accounts or views on Instagram feed (χ21, N=1139=7.9;
Gender and engagement with fitspiration (n=1139).
Total (n=1139), n (%) | Gender, n (%) | Φ coefficient | ||||||
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Male | Female |
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.005 | −0.083 | ||||||
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Yes | 767 (67.30) | 202 (61.20) | 565 (69.80) |
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No | 372 (32.70) | 128 (38.80) | 244 (30.20) |
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.11 | −0.048 | ||||||
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Yes | 731 (64.20) | 200 (60.60) | 531 (65.60) |
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No | 408 (35.80) | 130 (39.40) | 278 (34.40) |
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<.001 | −0.115 | ||||||
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Yes | 586 (51.40) | 140 (42.20) | 446 (55.10) |
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No | 553 (48.60) | 190 (57.60) | 363 (44.90) |
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.06 | −0.057 | ||||||
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Yes | 289 (25.40) | 71 (21.50) | 218 (26.90) |
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No | 850 (74.60) | 259 (78.50) | 591 (73.10) |
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.39 | 0.026 | ||||||
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Yes | 190 (16.70) | 60 (18.20) | 130 (16.10) |
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No | 949 (83.30) | 270 (81.80) | 679 (83.90) |
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.007 | 0.079 | ||||||
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Yes | 110 (9.70) | 44 (13.30) | 66 (8.20) |
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No | 1029 (90.30) | 286 (86.70) | 743 (91.80) |
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.004 | 0.084 | ||||||
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Yes | 217 (19.10) | 80 (24.20) | 137 (16.90) |
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No | 922 (80.90) | 250 (75.80) | 672 (83.10) |
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.01 | 0.075 | ||||||
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Yes | 130 (11.40) | 50 (15.20) | 80 (9.90) |
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No | 1009 (88.60) | 280 (84.80) | 729 (90.10) |
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.96 | 0.002 | ||||||
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Yes | 184 (16.20) | 53 (16.10) | 131 (16.20) |
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No | 955 (83.80) | 277 (83.90) | 678 (83.80) |
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Gender and fitspiration engagement.
The main reasons for viewing fitspiration content selected by participants were to improve their health and well-being (669/1189, 56.27%); inspiration to exercise to improve body shape, tone, or size (636/1189, 53.49%); and inspiration for healthy eating (630/1189, 52.99%). There were clear gender differences between men and women in terms of the reasons for viewing fitspiration. Men were more likely to use fitspiration as an inspiration to exercise to gain muscle or get stronger (χ21, N=1147=17.9;
Gender and reasons for engagement (n=1147).
Reason for engagement | Total (n=1147), n (%) | Gender, n (%) | Φ coefficient | ||||||||
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Male | Female |
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.74 | 0.010 | |||||||||
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Yes | 648 (56.50) | 189 (57.30) | 459 (56.20) |
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No | 499 (43.50) | 141 (42.70) | 358 (43.80) |
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.20 | −0.038 | |||||||||
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Yes | 351 (30.60) | 92 (27.90) | 259 (31.70) |
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No | 796 (69.40) | 238 (72.10) | 558 (68.30) |
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<.001 | −0.181 | |||||||||
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Yes | 615 (53.60) | 130 (39.40) | 485 (59.40) |
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No | 532 (46.40) | 200 (60.60) | 332 (40.60) |
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.003 | −0.088 | |||||||||
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Yes | 618 (53.90) | 155 (47) | 463 (56.70) |
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No | 529 (46.10) | 175 (53) | 354 (43.30) |
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<.001 | 0.125 | |||||||||
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Yes | 361 (31.50) | 134 (40.60) | 227 (27.80) |
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No | 786 (68.50) | 196 (59.40) | 590 (72.20) |
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<.001 | −0.108 | |||||||||
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Yes | 432 (37.70) | 97 (29.40) | 335 (41) |
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No | 715 (62.30) | 233 (70.60) | 482 (59) |
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.52 | −0.019 | |||||||||
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Yes | 291 (25.40) | 88 (26.70) | 203 (24.80) |
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No | 856 (74.60) | 242 (73.30) | 614 (75.20) |
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.02 | −0.069 | |||||||||
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Yes | 143 (12.50) | 53 (16.10) | 90 (11) |
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No | 1004 (87.50) | 277 (83.90) | 727 (89) |
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Gender and reasons for fitspiration engagement.
This quantitative survey of young Instagram fitspiration users reveals important insights regarding how and why consumers in the United Kingdom engage in this form of digital content. Most participants actively using Instagram for fitspiration (therefore eligible to take part in the study) were women (826/1175, 70.30%), consistent with previous academic research [
Historically, the dominant body ideal for men has increasingly shifted toward muscularity, with a specific emphasis on muscular definition and tone [
Some scholarly work exploring the masculine body ideal has suggested that in addition to promoting muscularity, men are increasingly interested in reducing body fat to promote
Critical research has suggested that the dominant body ideal for women is a contradictory body [
The findings also demonstrate that women are significantly more likely to consume fitspiration content from celebrities or models and influencers than their male counterparts, who, as noted above, are more likely to engage with athletes and bodybuilders. While numerous athletes and sportspeople monetize their use of Instagram [
While women are significantly more likely to engage in passive fitspiration consumption behaviors such as following, viewing, and scrolling through individual accounts, posts, or images, men are more likely to engage in active engagement, such as tagging fitspiration accounts in posts, commenting, and posting fitspiration content. This is in contrast to previous research [
Ultimately, the finding that men are significantly more likely to report posting fitspiration content than women provides an interesting texture to the existing research narrative, as previous content research demonstrates that the majority (67%) of fitspiration images depict women as opposed to men [
This study has numerous strengths and limitations that require consideration to adequately interpret the study findings. First, these findings reflect a large sample (n=1213) of fitspiration users in the United Kingdom and shed valuable light on their motivations for engagement, patterns of consumption, and the perceived impact of fitspiration from a gendered perspective. These user-centered data are especially enlightening, as they can be used to support the largely content-driven literature in this area. However, while this provides an alternative perspective, this study does not explain the relationship between content and consumption in terms of how they intersect, and to what extent consumption is driven by content. Furthermore, the research method provides a breadth of existing knowledge but sacrifices some depth that could potentially be achieved through qualitative interviews and questionnaires, or naturalistic observation and walk-through methods.
While the consumer-driven focus of the study is rationalized based on the absence of this focus from the existing research narrative, there are aspects of the consumer experience that have been neglected. More in-depth exploration could have involved exploring the gender differences in terms of body-part focus to build on existing literature [
As with any such survey, the representativeness of any sample can always be questioned. Although a random sample was drawn from a larger panel, it is difficult to judge the extent to which such samples are truly representative of the actual population; for example, it may be that women may be more likely to engage with web-based surveys; hence, the results must be treated with some caution. The use of nonvalidated measures could also be identified as a potential issue, even given the descriptive nature of the items, and this could be addressed in future research.
Third, this study explores the gendered nature of fitspiration consumption and yields some important findings regarding the differences in what fitspiration young UK-based men and women were consuming, and how and why they chose to consume it. However, because of the statistical nature of the analysis, this study did not go into any depth regarding individuals identified as nonbinary or genderqueer (7/1175, 0.6%) as opposed to males or females. This 0.6% is comparable with estimates for the general UK population that suggest 0.4% of adults in the United Kingdom identify as nonbinary or genderqueer when faced with it as an option alongside males and females [
Finally, as with any study involving multiple analyses, the risk of false positives is always present. No adjustments were made for this within the analysis for two reasons: first, the research provides findings that are aligned with previous empirical work and theory, and second, that there was a general degree of consistency within the findings. While the risk remains, it would seem to be small, and given the exploratory nature of the study, further work and analysis may not be necessary to strengthen confidence in the analyses presented here.
This study and the evaluation above highlight several valuable directions for future fitspiration research. First, there is a need for research to explore the relationship between content and consumption in terms of how they drive each other and the uniquely gendered nature of each. This could take the form of qualitative research exploring the fitspiration consumption process in more depth, or scholarly work focusing on fitspiration producers, who are likely to also be actively engaged consumers.
Furthermore, this survey could be used as a template to explore generational and cross-cultural differences and compare the unique ways in which these consumption patterns are gendered. It would be especially interesting to explore if and how this content is consumed in non-Western, majority world countries, with alternative ideas regarding body ideals and gender roles to make comparisons. In addition, to provide a comprehensive understanding of how representative this and other research on fitspiration use and UK consumers, there is a need for large-scale quantitative work that explores the prevalence of this web-based behavior both in the United Kingdom and globally.
While this research provides an exploration into the fitspiration consumption experiences of young people aged 18-24 years who represent around 24.1% of all UK-based Instagram users, additional research should focus on younger participants and adolescents who, despite using Instagram less (representing 8.1% of UK-based users [
There is also a need to explore how people who identify as nonbinary or genderqueer as opposed to male or female consume fitspiration, and the challenges that they face in being confronted by large volumes of this content that largely seems to be coded as either male or female. There is also a need for content-driven research exploring fitspiration content created by and for genderqueer and nonbinary individuals. It is also important that future research looks to further unpack the finding that women were more likely to consume fitspiration on Instagram, while men were more likely to create content. There is a need to explore possible explanations to ascertain whether men are less likely to post images of their bodies as fitspiration than women, such as posting images of women and coding them as fitspiration content that women fail to accurately report their active engagement, or suggest an alternative explanation. Finally, future research needs to explore whether male fitspiration users are indeed a unique subculture, and whether the male muscular ideal is broadly still dominant, as theorists have suggested that there is movement away from hypermasculine male stereotypes in the general media, with the strong hard man ideal becoming diminished in favor of more diverse forms of masculinity [
The purpose of this study was to explore how young men and women engage with fitspiration content on Instagram and to provide a gendered analysis of how and why they consume this content. The key findings of this study achieved this aim in demonstrating the gendered way in which consumers engage with the fitspiration content on Instagram. Specifically, while all fitspiration consumers engaged with content that reinforced traditional body ideals, ideals were extremely gendered. Furthermore, male users were more likely to engage actively with content than female users who consumed content more passively, indicating that the experiences of men and women consuming fitspiration are vastly different. Therefore, based on these findings, it is suggested that any interventions designed to address the potential harm of this web-based content for young people should be gender-specific to adequately address the heavily gendered body ideals and experiential differences for young men and women.
This study was funded by Bournemouth University’s internal research funding.
None declared.